User blog:Granpa/language structure
See also: Part of speech, Morphology, grammatical category, and Ontology Structure words :See also: Function word Determiner :See also: Determiner Articles *a, an, the Demonstratives *this, that, these, such, other, next, previous Possessive determiner *of Quantifiers *all, every, some, many, much, little, few, no, several, enough Distributive determiners *each, any, either, neither Interrogative determiners *which, what, whose Pronouns *Personal pronouns **First person ***I, me ***we, us **Second person ***you **Third person ***he, him, she, her, it, they ***they, them *Possessive pronouns **First person ***my **Second person ***your **Third person ***his, her, its *Reciprocal pronouns **each other, one another Prepositions :See also: Preposition Motion *from *through, throughout *to, toward, towards *since *during, while *till, until Directions *up *down *forward *back *right *left *sideways *north, south, east, west, Top *above, over *atop, ontop *upon Bottom *below *beneath *under, underneath Front *before *opposite Back *after, *behind *beyond *past Side *beside Inside *amid, among *between *in, inside, into *within Outside *around *out, outside *without Near *about *at *by *near Touching *across *against *along *on, onto *off Misc *for *as *like *of *than *with *than Conjunctions :See also: Conjunction *Coordinating **For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So *Correlative **either...or **not only...but (also) **neither...nor **both...and **whether...or **just as...so **the...the **as...as **as much...as **no sooner...than **rather...than *Subordinating **after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever Auxiliary verbs *be (am, are, is, was, were, being, been), *can, *could, *dare, *do (does, did), *have (has, had, having), *may, *might, *must, *need, *ought, *shall, *should, *will, *would Sentence words *ouch, *wow, *damn, *hey, hi *bye, *okay, *oh, *m-hm, *huh, *uh, *er, *um *yes, no *okay, please, Particles Verbs :From Wikipedia:Appendix:Basic English word list *come, go, send, *get, give, keep, take, have *let, make *put *seem *be, do *say *see *hear Nouns (400) :From Wikipedia:Appendix:Basic English word list account, act, addition, adjustment, advertisement, agreement, air, amount, amusement, animal, answer, apparatus, approval, argument, art, attack, attempt, attention, attraction, authority, back, balance, base, behaviour, belief, birth, bit, bite, blood, blow, body, brass, bread, breath, brother, building, burn, burst, business, butter, canvas, care, cause, chalk, chance, change, cloth, coal, colour, comfort, committee, company, comparison, competition, condition, connection, control, cook, copper, copy, cork, cotton, cough, country, cover, crack, credit, crime, crush, cry, current, curve, damage, danger, daughter, day, death, debt, decision, degree, design, desire, destruction, detail, development, digestion, direction, discovery, discussion, disease, disgust, distance, distribution, division, doubt, drink, driving, dust, earth, edge, education, effect, end, error, event, example, exchange, existence, expansion, experience, expert, fact, fall, family, father, fear, feeling, fiction, field, fight, fire, flame, flight, flower, fold, food, force, form, friend, front, fruit glass, gold, government, grain, grass, grip, group, growth, guide, harbour, harmony, hate, hearing, heat, help, history, hole, hope, hour, humour, ice, idea, impulse, increase, industry, ink, insect, instrument, insurance, interest, invention, iron, jelly, join, journey, judge, jump, kick, kiss, knowledge, land, language, laugh, law, lead, learning, leather, letter, level, lift, light, limit, linen, liquid, list, look, loss, love, machine, man, manager, mark, market, mass, meal, measure, meat, meeting, memory, metal, middle, milk, mind, mine, minute, mist, money, month, morning, mother, motion, mountain, move, music, name, nation, need, news, night, noise, note, number, observation, offer, oil, operation, opinion, order, organization, ornament, owner page, pain, paint, paper, part, paste, payment, peace, person, place, plant, play, pleasure, point, poison, polish, porter, position, powder, power, price, print, process, produce, profit, property, prose, protest, pull, punishment, purpose, push, quality, question, rain, range, rate, ray, reaction, reading, reason, record, regret, relation, religion, representative, request, respect, rest, reward, rhythm, rice, river, road, roll, room, rub, rule, run, salt, sand, scale, science, sea, seat, secretary, selection, self, sense, servant, sex, shade, shake, shame, shock, side, sign, silk, silver, sister, size, sky, sleep, slip, slope, smash, smell, smile, smoke, sneeze, snow, soap, society, son, song, sort, sound, soup, space, stage, start, statement, steam, steel, step, stitch, stone, stop, story, stretch, structure, substance, sugar, suggestion, summer, support, surprise, swim, system, talk, taste, tax, teaching, tendency, test, theory, thing, thought, thunder, time, tin, top, touch, trade, transport, trick, trouble, turn, twist, unit, use, value, verse, vessel, view, voice, walk, war, wash, waste, water, wave, wax, way, weather, week, weight, wind, wine, winter, woman, wood, wool, word, work, wound, writing, year. Nouns - (200) :From Wikipedia:Appendix:Basic English word list angle, ant, apple, arch, arm, army, baby, bag, ball, band, basin, basket, bath, bed, bee, bell, berry, bird, blade, board, boat, bone, book, boot, bottle, box, boy, brain, brake, branch, brick, bridge, brush, bucket, bulb, button, cake, camera, card, cart, carriage, cat, chain, cheese, chest, chin, church, circle, clock, cloud, coat, collar, comb, cord, cow, cup, curtain, cushion, dog, door, drain, drawer, dress, drop, ear, egg, engine, eye, face, farm, feather, finger, fish, flag, floor, fly, foot, fork, fowl, frame, garden, girl, glove, goat, gun, hair, hammer, hand, hat, head, heart, hook, horn, horse, hospital, house, island, jewel, kettle, key, knee, knife, knot, leaf, leg, library, line, lip, lock, map, match, monkey, moon, mouth, muscle, nail, neck, needle, nerve, net, nose, nut, office, orange, oven, parcel, pen, pencil, picture, pig, pin, pipe, plane, plate, plough, pocket, pot, potato, prison, pump, rail, rat, receipt, ring, rod, roof, root, sail, school, scissors, screw, seed, sheep, shelf, ship, shirt, shoe, skin, skirt, snake, sock, spade, sponge, spoon, spring, square, stamp, star, station, stem, stick, stocking, stomach, store, street, sun, table, tail, thread, throat, thumb, ticket, toe, tongue, tooth, town, train, tray, tree, trousers, umbrella, wall, watch, wheel, whip, whistle, window, wing, wire, worm. Adjectives :From Wikipedia:Appendix:Basic English word list able, acid, alike, angry, automatic beautiful, boiling, broken cheap, chemical, chief, clear, common, conscious, cut dependent elastic, electric, equal fat, fertile, fixed, flat, free, frequent general, great hanging, healthy, hollow important living married, material, medical, military natural, necessary, normal parallel, physical, political, possible, present, probable quick ready, regular, responsible, round separate, serious, sticky, stiff, sudden thick, tired violent waiting young Opposites Numbers *first *second *third *fourth Colors *blue *green *yellow *orange *red *white *grey *black *brown Adverbs *near *far *upward *downward *forward *backward *northward *southward *eastward *westward *then *there *so *very *quite *well *almost *even *not *only *again *ever *still *together Vowels :From Wikipedia:English_phonology#Vowels: Consonants :From Wikipedia:Template:IPA pulmonic consonants: Noun types Proper nouns vs common nouns *John vs human Countable and uncountable nouns *Chair vs furniture (many vs much) Collective nouns *committee Concrete nouns and abstract nouns *Rock vs justice Noun Declension :From Wikipedia:Declension: number *singular *dual *plural case *nominative case *accusative case *genitive case *dative case gender *masculine *neuter *feminine Verb types :From Wikipedia:Verb: Intransitive verbs Does not have a direct object *The boy wept. Transitive verbs Has a direct object *My friend read the newspaper Ditransitive verbs Has a direct object and an indirect object *The players gave their teammates high fives Double transitive verbs Has a direct object and a complement *The young couple considers the neighbors wealthy people Linking verbs Can't be followed by an adverb or end a sentence, but instead must be followed by a noun or adjective *Josh remained a reliable friend Verb conjugation :From Wikipedia:Grammatical conjugation: *person *number *gender *tense *aspect *mood *voice *case *possession *definiteness *politeness *causativity *clusivity *interrogativity *transitivity *valency *polarity *telicity *volition *mirativity *evidentiality *animacy *associativity *pluractionality *reciprocity Language types :See also: Morphological typology :From Wikipedia:Isolating language Although historically, languages were divided into three basic types (isolating, flectional, agglutinative), the traditional morphological types can be categorized by two distinct parameters: *morpheme per word ratio (how many morphemes there are per word) *degree of fusion between morphemes (how separable words' inflectional morphemes are according to units of meaning represented) The English term "rice" is a single word consisting of only one morpheme (rice). *This word has a 1:1 morpheme per word ratio. In contrast, "handshakes" is a single word consisting of three morphemes (hand, shake, -s). *This word has a 3:1 morpheme per word ratio. The Russian word vídyat/видят 'they see' has a morpheme per word ratio of 2:1, having two morphemes: *the root vid-/вид-, which conveys the imperfective aspect meaning, *the inflectional morpheme -yat/-ят which inflects for four units of meaning (3rd person subject, plural subject, present/future tense, indicative mood). Effectively, it has four units of meaning in one inseparable morpheme From Wikipedia:Morpheme: Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of the affected word. *happiness: changes the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). Inflectional morphemes modify a verb's tense, aspect, mood, person, or number, or a noun's, pronoun's or adjective's number, gender or case, without affecting the word's meaning or class (part of speech). *waited: changes to past tense without changing the meaning of "wait". Analytic language :From Wikipedia:Analytic language An analytic language is a language that primarily conveys relationships between words in sentences by way of helper words (particles, prepositions, etc.) and word order, as opposed to utilizing inflections. An analytic language can lack inflectional morphemes yet still have derivational morphemes. Isolating language :From Wikipedia:Isolating language An isolating language is a type of language with a very low morpheme per word ratio and no inflectional morphology whatsoever. In the extreme case, each word contains a single morpheme. Synthetic language :From Wikipedia:Synthetic language A synthetic language uses inflection or agglutination to express syntactic relationships within a sentence Agglutinative language :From Wikipedia:Agglutinative language An agglutinative language is a type of synthetic language with morphology that primarily uses agglutination. Words may contain different morphemes to determine their meanings, but all of these morphemes (including stems and affixes) remain, in every aspect, unchanged after their unions. Fusional language :From Wikipedia:Fusional language Fusional languages or inflected languages (or inflectional or flectional in older terminology) are a type of synthetic language, distinguished from agglutinative languages by their tendency to use a single inflectional morpheme to denote multiple grammatical, syntactic, or semantic features. Polysynthetic language :From Wikipedia:Polysynthetic language Polysynthetic languages are highly synthetic languages, i.e. languages in which words are composed of many morphemes (word parts that have independent meaning but may or may not be able to stand alone). They are very highly inflected languages. Polysynthetic languages typically have long "sentence-words" Oligosynthetic language :From Wikipedia:Oligosynthetic language An oligosynthetic language (from the Greek ὀλίγος, meaning "few" or "little") is any language using very few morphemes, perhaps only a hundred, which combine synthetically to form statements. Oligosynthesis is almost entirely theoretical and would depend heavily on the creation of lengthy compound words, to an extent far exceeding that of natural polysynthetic languages Word frequency :See also: Wikipedia:Most common words in English :From Wikipedia:Brown Corpus: One interesting result is that even for quite large samples, graphing words in order of decreasing frequency of occurrence shows a hyperbola: the frequency of the n-th most frequent word is roughly proportional to 1/n. Thus "the" constitutes nearly 7% of the Brown Corpus, "to" and "of" more than another 3% each; while about half the total vocabulary of about 50,000 words are hapax legomena: words that occur only once in the corpus. This simple rank-vs.-frequency relationship was noted for an extraordinary variety of phenomena by George Kingsley Zipf, and is known as Zipf's law. The word "the" forms 0.07 of the words in an average text. 1/0.07 = 14.2857142857 Category:Blog posts